The culmination of Bernard’s work on the glycogenic function of the liver. He invented the term “internal secretion” and can be said to have started the scientific investigation of the internal secretions, although for 30 years the significance of his work was not generally realized. By his research on glycogen Bernard showed that the body can not only break down, but can also build up, complex chemical substances.

The most beautifully illustrated of all Bernard’s writings, which summed up the results of his work on the role of the pancreas in digestion. English translation as Memoir on the pancreas, and on the role of pancreatic juice in digestive processes, particularly in the digestion of neutral fat,  translated by John Henderson, reproducing the color plates in color. London, 1985.

Corvisart showed that pancreatic proteolysis takes place at body temperature, in acid, alkaline, or neutral media.

“Sappey’s veins” in the falciform ligament of the liver.

Discovery of trypsin.

Discovery, in the feces, of “stercorine” (coprosterol).

Auerbach’s plexus and ganglion. See also his book Ueber einen Plexus myentericus, Breslau, Morgenstern, 1862.

Thiry-Vella fistula. See also No. 1014.

First account of the islets of Langerhans. In 1893 Édouard Laguesse attached the name of Langerhans to the structures. Langerhans did not suggest any function for them. The book was reprinted with an English translation by H. Morrison, Bull. Hist. Med., 1937, 5, 259-97.

Study of the effect of poisons on the nerves of the submaxillary gland.

Isolation of trypsin.

Heidenhain pouch.

Luciani distinguished three stages of starvation in man – hunger, physiological inanition, and pathological inanition. Digital facsimile from Google Books at this link.

An experimental study, by means of a balloon, of swallowing and of oesophageal contractions.

Kühne and Chittenden isolated and named several new substances during their investigation of the products of digestion. See also the same journal, 1884, 20, 11-51; 1886, 22, 409-58; 1889, 25, 358-67.

Includes the first account of Bact. coli infection. The organism was later renamed Escherichia coli (E.coli).

“Sphincter of Oddi” of the bile duct, already known to Glisson in 1654. Reprinted as a pamphlet, Perugia, 1887.

“Hartmann’s pouch”, a dilatation of the neck of the gall-bladder.

Proof that healthy life and perfect digestion are possible without the presence of bacteria in the digestive tract.

The “cells of Kultschitzky” in the epithelium of the intestine, between the cells which line the gland of Lieberkühn.

Pavlov's classic study of the physiology of digestion. Especially notable was his method of producing gastric and pancreatic fistulae for the purpose of his experiments. The second published edition was a German translation by A. Walther, Wiesbaden, J.F. Bergmann, 1898. The work was translated into English in 1902, with a second edition appearing in 1910. A translation of Pavlov’s description of the stomach pouch devised by him is in J. F. Fulton’s Selected readings in the history of physiology, 2nd ed., 1966, pp. 192-93.

In 1904 Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged."

“Addison’s transpyloric plane”. Addison was Britain’s first Minister of Health (1919-21).

Demonstration of the existence of secretin in the duodenal secretion. Preliminary note in Lancet, 1902, 1, 813.

Rubner’s classic work on the influence of foodstuffs on metabolism. In it he introduced the term “specific dynamic action of the foodstuffs”.

Gastric secretin (gastrin) was first described by Edkins. A preliminary communication is in Proc. roy. Soc. B, 1905, 76, 376.

Digital facsimile from ECHO at this link.

Summarized research begun in 1896. See No. 3519.

Carlson recorded stomach movements by means of a balloon inserted through a gastric fistula. Much of his important work on gastric physiology was summed up in his book published in 1916. See No. 1033.

Cinematographic studies of the movements of the intestines in animals. Digital facsimile from the Internet Archive at this link.

Digital facsimile from the Internet Archive at this link.

 "Trendelenburg preparation", a preparation used in determining the actions of pharmacological agents on peristalsis.

Includes (p. 111) his smooth diet for duodenal ulcer. Fourth edition entitled Introduction to gastro-enterology, 1950.

The work of Kosaka and Lim led to the discovery of a hormone inhibiting gastric secretion (“enterogastrone”).

Crystallization of pepsin and its identity as a protein. 

In 1946 Northrop shared half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Wendell Meredith Stanley "for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form." The other half was awarded to James Bathcellor Sumner "for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized."

Preparation of crystalline secretin.

An important contribution to the knowledge of iron absorption. With W. F. Bale, J. F. Ross, W. M. Balfour, and G. H. Whipple.

Important experiments on gastric function, made on “Tom”, a man who had a gastric fistula from the age of 9. Second edition in 1947.

The first modern physiology textbook, in which doctrine gave way to simple, precise descriptions of experimental facts. Vol. 2 contains Magendie’s classic demonstration of the importance of nitrogenous food, or protein, in the food supply of mammals. In the course of his experiments on dogs fed non-nitrogenous substances, Magendie also induced the first experimental cases of what would later be called an avitaminosis (specifically, lack of vitamin A.) Translated into English by John Revere as A summary of physiology, Baltimore, Edward J. Coale & Co., 1822.

Digital facsimile of the 1822 edition from wellcomecollection.org at this link.

Working in Bunge’s laboratory, Lunin prepared synthetic milk diets and showed that they lacked an unknown factor necessary for animal growth, and that animals cannot live on a chemically pure (i.e. vitamin-free) diet. This was the starting point of modern research on vitamins.

Chittenden, founder of the first laboratory of physiological chemistry in the U.S.A., made many important experiments in nutrition, especially in connexion with the low protein diet advocated by him.

Hopkins predicted the existence of vitamins as early as 1906. He fed animals a diet of zein which failed to maintain growth; however, the animals grew at once when casein was substituted. He concluded that “in the organs must appear special, indispensable active substances which the tissues can only make from special precursors in the diet”.

A classic exposition of respiratory and intermediary metabolism. Fourth edition, 1928. Reprint of Lusk’s personal annotated copy of the fourth edition, with biography and bibliography of his writings, New York, Johnson Reprint, 1976.

Stepp discovered that removal of fat from the diet greatly reduced its nutritive value, but that substitution of pure fats did not replace the deficiency. He thus discovered the existence of fat-soluble vitamins, without fully realizing what he had discovered. For his later papers, see the Zeitschrift für Biologie, 1911, 57, 135; 1913, 62, 405.     

One of the earliest attempts to isolate what later became known as vitamin B_1.See No. 1051.

Funk determined the chemical nature of the substance in rice polishings which could cure beriberi.

In 1929 Hopkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Eijkman "for his discovery of the growth-stimulating vitamins."

Discovery of “fat-soluble A” (vitamin A). See also J. biol. Chem., 1915, 23,181-246, in which the same authors showed the necessity in diet for at least two factors – “fat-soluble A” and “water-soluble B”.

Like McCollum and Davis, Osborne and Mendel showed the necessity in diet of a factor which was later to be known as vitamin A.

A pioneer work in the study of vitamins. Much of the previous literature is reviewed. Funk introduced the term “vitamine”, later changed to “vitamin”. In 1912 (J. State Med., 20, 341) he postulated his theory of the existence of unknown but essential factors in diet. See No. 1047.

In 1920 Drummond suggested the term “vitamin”.

Separation of vitamin A from vitamin D. With M. Sell and M. Van R. Buell.

Discovery of vitamin D. with N. Simmonds, J. E. Becker, and P. G. Shipley.

Discovery of vitamin E. See also their later paper in J. Amer. med. Ass.,1923, 81, 889-92.

Demonstration that the therapeutic properties of ultra-violet light could be effectively stored in foods and later released after consumption. With E. B. Hart, C. A. Hoppert, and A. Black.

Anti-pellagra vitamin (B₂, riboflavine). With G. A. Wheeler, R. D. Lillie, and L. M. Rogers.

Isolation of vitamin B₁ (aneurine, thiamine), lack of which is a cause of beri-beri.

Proof that the irradiation of ergosterol formed vitamin D.

Isolation of vitamin C, ascorbic acid.

In 1937 Szent-Györgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for his discoveries in connexion with the biological combustion process with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid."

Vitamin B₃.

See No. 1065. With C. Fischmann, R. G. C. Jenkins, and T. A. Webster.

In 1943 Dam shared the Nobel Prize with Doisy "for discovery of vitamin K, the blood coagulating factor."

Demonstration of the need of the body for certain unsaturated fatty acids (vitamin F).

Discovery of vitamin B₅, probably identical with nicotinic acid. With H. W. Kinnersley and R. A. Peters.

Medical Research Council Special Report No. 158. R. B. Bourdillon, H. M. Bruce, C. Fischmann, R. G. C. Jenkins, and T. A. Webster isolated from irradiated ergosterol a crystalline compound, calciferol, which, weight for weight, has 400,000 times the anti-rachitic value of cod liver oil. See also No. 1061.

Written with R. B. Bourdillon, H. M. Bruce, R. K. Callow, J. St. L. Philpot, and T. A. Webster.

T. Reichstein, A. Grüssner, and R. Oppenauer synthesized vitamin C.

Discovery of pantothenic acid (vitamin B₃). with C. M. Lyman, G. H. Goodyear, J. H. Truesdail, and D. Holaday.

Chemical formula of riboflavine (vitamin B₂).

Isolation of vitamin F (linolenic acid). 

Isolation of vitamin E, named by Herbert M. Evans. 

Isolation of biotin (vitamin H).

Discovery of vitamin P (“citrin”).

Synthesis of aneurine.

With F. Bergel and T. S. Work.

Chicken pellagra factor.

Isolation of nicotinic acid, the pellagra-preventing factor (Vitamin B3). With R. J. Madden, F. N. Strong, and D. W. Woolley.

P. Karrer, H. Fritzsche, B. H. Ringier, and H. Salomon synthesized vitamin E (α-tocopherol).

Isolation of vitamin K₁ from alfalfa. It was isolated independently by R. W. McKee and his co-workers, J. Amer. chem. Soc., 1939, 61, 1295.

Order of authorship in the original publication: Binkley, MacCorquodale, Thayer, Doisy.

In 1943 Doisy received half of  the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine  "for his discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K."  Henrik Dam received the other half "for his discovery of Vitamin K." See also No. 1082.

Structural formula of vitamin K₂.

Recognition of β-amenobenzoic acid as a member of the vitamin-B complex.

Isolation of β-biotin (formerly known as vitamin H). With D. B. Melville, P. György, and C. S. Rose.

Isolation of vitamin B_c (folic acid, pteroylglutamic acid). Preliminary communication in J. biol. Chem., 1939, 128, xlvi-xlvii.

Lipocaic. With J. Van Prohaska and H. P. Harms.

Isolation of vitamin P (hespendin chalcone).

Synthesis of biotin. With D. E. Wolf, R. Mozingo, and K. Folkers.

Isolation of α-biotin.

Mary Shorb provided a method of biological assay of liver extracts that made possible the isolation of vitamin B₁₂.

With N. G. Brink, F. R. Koniuszy, T. R. Wood, and K. Folkers.

Independently of Rickes et al., Lester Smith isolated vitamin B₁₂ in Britain. See also Nature (Lond.), 1948, 161, 638.

Revised edition, 1958.

Extensively illustrated history of nutrition in ancient Egypt. 

Eustachius is credited with several anatomical discoveries, among them the tensor tympani muscle and the Eustachian tube, published in his chapter entitled De auditus organis. In the last respect, however, he was anticipated by Alcmaeon, about 500 BCE. Eustachius was the first to describe the chorda tympani as a nerve. Plate VIII illustrates the “Eustachian valve”, the valvula venae cavae in the right auricle. Eustachius recognized the thoracic duct in the horse and even detected some of its valves. His work on this structure was forgotten until Aselli’s description of the lacteals. This work includes first description of the adrenals. Several of the plates deal with the structure of the kidney.

Basing his work on the dissection of fetuses and newborn children, Eustachi was the first to study the teeth in any considerable detail. In his Libellus de dentibus attached to this work he provided an important description of the first and second dentitions and described the hard outer tissue and soft inner structure of the teeth. He also attempted an explanation of the problem of the sensitivity of the tooth’s hard structure. The Libellus has a separate title page dated 1563. It was reprinted with German translation, Wien, Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1951. It was translated into English by Joan H. Thomas and edited and introduced by David A. Chernin and Gerald Shlklar as as A little treatise on the teeth. The first authoritative book on dentistry (1563) (Canton, MA, 1999). Eustachi’s illustrations of the teeth were first published in his Tabulae anatomicae, edited by Giovanni Maria Lancisi (No. 391). For further information, including a discussion of the states of the Opuscula, see the entry at HistoryofInformation.com at this link.

Digital facsimile of the 1563 edition from the Internet Archive at this link.

Records the discovery of the lacteal vessels. While performing vivisection on a dog that had recently fed, Aselli noticed a network of vessels in the mesentery and along the peritoneal surface of the intestine. The vessels released a whitish fluid similar to milk when incised, so Aselli called them lacteas, sive albas venas. He made a systematic study of these vessels in different species of animals, noting the chronological relationship between their engorgement and the animal's last meal, and erroneously conjectured that the vessels led to the liver; it was not until Jean Pecquet's discovery of the thoracic duct and its continuity with the lacteal vessels that the process of absorption was clearly established.

De lactibus sive lacteis venis was posthumously published in Milan at the press of Giambattista Bidelli through the efforts of Nicolas Fabry de Peiresc. The work contains a beautiful engraved title page and a portrait of Aselli by the Milanese painter and engraver Cesare Bassano. The four folding chiaroscuro woodcuts in this work, printed in black, red and two shades of brown, were the first color-printed illustrations in a medical or anatomical work. They are unsigned and authorship of these has not been established.

Pecquet discovered the thoracic duct in dogs and its relation to the lacteals. Using a dog that was digesting, he described the thoracic duct, its entry into the subclavian veins, and the receptaculum chyli or chyle reservoir. The chyle reservoir had been sought after since Aselli’s discovery of the chyliferous vessels (lacteals) in the dog. English translation, London, 1653.

Contains Bartholin’s discovery of the thoracic duct. English translation, 1653.

Bartholin disputed the claim of Rudbeck as to priority in the discovery of the intestinal lymphatics. Although anticipated in this by Rudbeck, there is no doubt that Bartholinus was the first to appreciate the significance of the lymphatic system as a whole. Facsimile edition, 1916.

Rudbeck claimed to have discovered the intestinal lymphatics and their connexion with the thoracic duct in 1651, a claim disputed as to priority by Bartholin (Nos. 1096-97). This book was reproduced in facsimile in 1930. English translation in Bull. Hist. Med., 1942,11, 304-39.

Independently of Bartholin and Rudbeck, George Joyliffe (1621-58) observed the lymphatics. He communicated his discovery to Glisson early in 1652 and the latter included an account in the above work (Cap. xxxi). See No. 972.

First description of the valves of the lymphatics, discovered by Ruysch. Facsimile reprint, Niewkoop, De Graaf, 1964.